Concept of Product Life Cycle Essays

Concept of Product Life Cycle Essays Concept of Product Life Cycle Paper Concept of Product Life Cycle Paper Essay Topic: Marketing The concept of the product life cycle (PLC) is one of major tools used in developing marketing strategy. This theory is more and more popular in recent years, because many marketers desire for a tool to help them understand the products development which means all products have their own life time as they eventually decline and disappear. Based on that understanding of the product, the marketers can adapt their marketing strategy and find a new product to replace the dying one. According to Brassington and Pettitt (2003), the PLC concept explains the life of a product in terms of birth, growth, maturity, decline and eventual death which is based on the assumption that the product has a life like a human. During its life, the product goes through different stages, and in each stage it has different performance in the market which includes different market growth rates and different competitive conditions. This implies the marketer must set up different marketin g strategy for each stage to suit for the development of product. The aim of this essay is to discuss the concept of product life cycle which can give the marketer some basic information about this popular concept. Firstly, the general background of the product life cycle is given which includes the concept and the stages of PLC. Secondly, the strengths and weaknesses of the product life cycle are discussed. At the same time, some recommendations to mitigate the negative influences of the product life cycle are presented. Finally, a general conclusion is draw. Concept of Product Life Cycle The concept of PLC is a useful marketing tool to describe the change of the sale for the product during its lifetime. According to Armstrong and Kotler (2000), product life cycle (PLC) is the course of a products sales and profits over its lifetime. The product life cycle is a useful concept to describe how products develop from first introduction into the market to eventual obsolescence. The theory is that products, like living things, have a natural life cycle beginning with introduction, going through a growth phase, reaching maturity, then going into decline, and finally becoming obsolete (Blythe, J. 2001). The classic PLC involves four distinct stages: introduction, growth, maturity, and decline (Jobber, D. 1998). But Blythe (2001) thought there are five major stages of PLC, which are product development, introduction, growth, maturity, and decline. In this essay, the product development is introduced firstly which is seen as the first and necessary stage in product development process. The reason is explained in the following section. At the product development stage, it begins when the company recognises the customer need for a special product. Then the company design and develop the new-product idea based on that demand. During the stage of product development, sales are zero and the companys investment costs mount (Armstrong, G. and Korler, P. 2000). Although it seems useless to analyse the sale and cost in this stage, it is still a very important part of a product life cycle. Its length will affect the whole cycle in some way. Then, the product enter into introduction stage which the company push the product into markets. In this stage, only the marketers understand the characteristics of this stage, they can make the right decision about the product strategy which is suitable for the new product. Because the recognition of customer for the new product needs a period, this introduction stage is a period of slow sales growth as the product is just introduced in the market. Profits are negative because of the low sales and the huge expense in advertising and promotion. Advertising and promotion are the key activities for business to attract the customer to try the new product. That huge investment is reasonable and necessary. And also the company needs to consider the investment to attract the distributors and build the inventory. At the same time, it is few competitors at this stage. If the new product satisfies the market, it will enter a growth stage, which is a period of rapid market acceptance and increasing profits (Armstrong, G. and Korler, P. 2000). At the beginning of this stage, the sale and profit grow quickly. More and more customers accept the product and buy it, the investment of promotion and advertising is lower than the introduction stage. And market share is increased accordingly and quickly. At the same time, more and more companies recognise the product has big profit. Therefore, more and more competitors enter into this market. After the development of the market, profits may become to decline in the end period of growth stage as more competitors enter the market, driving prices down and creating the need for heavy promotional expenses (Jobber, D. 1998). In this stage, company has to choose between the high market share and high profit when they make the strategy decision. Fourthly, when the sale growth is slowdown, the product enters to the maturity stage of its PLC because the product has achieved acceptance by most potential buyers. Dibb and Simkin (1997) thought that this stage is characterized by severe competition, with many brands in the market. Competitors use many different strategies to gain the market share such as product improvements, advertising, sales promotion, dealer discount and price cutting. Finally, decline stage is the period when sales show fall off and profits erode (Armstrong, G. and Korler, P. 2000). According to Jobber (1998), sales and profits fall during this stage as new technology or changes in consumer tastes work to reduce demand for the product. In this stage, the market lost interest in this product and the companies are unable to up-grade and support it. Therefore, marketers may cut promotion efforts, eliminate distributors, and finally plan to walk out from this market. However, not all products follow the classic product life cycle which explained above. There are variations of the product life cycle. Some of the products may have more than five stages and more fluctuant curves. For example, the high-tech products which are more than one S-Shape curve. This type of product can be up-grated and development many times which lead the sales and profit up and down. When the customer accepts the product, the profits fall. When the product has been developed and improved, the profits rise. With the continuous process of products development and customers acceptance, the profits keep rising and falling such as computers, mobile phones. Although different products have different product life cycle and different products move through their life cycle at different speed, the theory of PLC still seem as a very useful method to help marketers identify the sales trends and plan appropriate marketing strategy and activities. Strengths and Weakness of PLC The product life cycle is a common and popular marketing concept that it appears at every standard marketing text. The strengths of the PLC are very obvious. Firstly, based on the theory of Jobber (1998) the PLC is benefit for the product planning. It can help marketers to develop product marketing strategy and it is also used as a forecasting model. PLC can forecast the future development of market and product which is big competitive advantage when the companies plan their marketing strategy for the product in every stage. However when the companies use the PLC concept to forecast product sale or to develop marketing strategies, they find many problems in practices (Korler, P. Armstrong, G. Saunders, J. and Wong, V. 1996). It is not easy to identify which stage of the PLC the product is in, especially the definitions of each stage is not very standard which could lead the confusion between stages. This is the precondition that the PLC concept can perform correctly. When the product enter to the next stage of PLC, if the company can not notices, the marketing strategy and plan will not appropriate for the new stage of the produce. Only when they recognise the change in PLC, they can make the right strategy based on the analysis for the crucial factors in the new stage. And in practice, it is difficult to forecast the sales level at each PLC stage, the length of each stage and the shape of the PLC curve (Jobber, D. 1998). The basic reason is this PLC concept can not help the marketer to understand the product and market in detail. It is theoretic and unclear. Secondly, the strength of PLC as a coordinating tool is to help marketers to coordinate 4Ps which include product, price, promotions and place. Thirdly, the PLC also can remand the marketers to pay more attention to the development of the product and its market. It warns the marketers that the product would not grow continually forever (Jobber, D. 1998). Normally, there is a danger that management may have high emotion in a particular product. The PLC can help the company understand that the product has its own lift cycle which means the company have to face the face that products need to be terminated and new products need to be developed to replace them. It also tells them that at the introduction stage, the phenomenon that the sale is low and expense is high are reasonable which is unnecessary to panic or give up. It is good for companies to recognise the realistic market, not through the book records only. Nevertheless, there are some weaknesses about the PLC. Although in the above, some of the problems are discussed. The following section explains very detailed concepts. Firstly, according to Jobber (1998), the duration of the PLC stages is unpredictable which is very difficult for marketer to identify the stages of product. The PLC outlines the four or five stages during a product life without defining their duration. Blythe (2001) states that the PLC is useful to describe what is happening, but is not much use for predicting what is going to happen, since it is virtually impossible to tell how long the maturity phase will continue. This weakness makes it difficult to use this concept as a decision-making tool because marketers can not easily know which part of the product life cycle the product currently in. The solution of this problem is to find a comparable product which seems as a template for predicting the length of each stage. There are two sources of comparable products. One is same product has already been on the market which is in other countries. The other one is that the similar products are in the mature or decline stages of their life cycle but they are thought to resemble the new product in terms of consumer acceptance . Of course, when the marketer use the comparable product to analyse their own product, it still many problems in reality, such as the different the economic and social conditions of countries which may effect the result of the analysis and make it invalid to transfer the duration of the stages from one country to another. Secondly, Jobber (1998) notes that the critics argue that the stylized marketing objectives and strategy prescriptions can be misleading. It is very difficult to predict how long the product will move from one stage to another stage in its life cycle. Because the products, companies and market are different, the length of the PLC is diverse. The problem is that the length of the PLC is affected by many factors which include the pace of change in the external environment and the companys marketing strategy of the product throughout its life (Brassington, F. and Pettitt, S. 2003). The companys objective and capability to make the correct marketing strategy in each stage of PLC for the product and to communicate effectively and efficiently with the consumers, and its method to develop and refresh its product will all affect how the PLC in some way. Thirdly, the weakness of PLC is that there is no common shape (Doyle, P. 1994). Through the analysis the data from different products, it is very clear that the PLC has not standard curve at all. In the real unstable markets, not all products follow the classic S-shaped PLC (Lancaster, G. and Massingham, L. 1993). Sometimes, although two brand products seem as same, they are in different types of PLC. Many factors determine the types of PLC for the product, which include the external environment changes and the strategy change of the company or the competitors. It is easy for marketers to analyse which curve their product belong to which lead confusion when companies use this theory to analyse their product. Fourthly, according to Doyle (1994), PLC has not clear implication which is a weakness every marketer knows. Although PLC concept defines the stages of the product life cycle for the common products and list all of the characteristics for each stage. But for some cases, the tradition has been proved as inaccurate. Some of the products have different characteristics compare with the tradition concept which will mislead the marketers conclusion about the products development. Finally, there is another weakness of the PLC has been revealed that PLC is a product-orientated concept. More and more marketers recognise the marketing is about how to satisfy the customers need. The company should pay more attention to analyse the change of the customers need, rather than focus on its products development. In other words, focusing on the product like the concept of PLC the company might not understand other key concepts of marketing such as the 7P. Product is just one of the important things of marketing, but not the core one. For the modern age, customer is the core thing that the company should focus on. Therefore, for the marketers, they need focus on the factors cause the change of the product stage not the PLC. Because of so many uncertain factors in the concept of PLC, some experts debate that PLC is a useless tool in reality. As Cowell (1984) state that it is not surprising that the life cycle concept has critics. Some attempts to derive the conventional S-shaped curve of the cycle with its stages of introduction, growth, maturity and decline have not been altogether convincing. In fact, some theoreticians have even suggested that the concept of PLC should be forgotten altogether (Dhalla and Yuspeh, 1976). Carman and Langeard (1979) argue that using the life cycle concept to build a product portfolio in services contexts is not very helpful. All those debates suggest that the concept of PLC is still immature and it still need to improve. Conclusion In conclusion, the product life cycle is a marketing tool, which is an aid for managerial decision-making. It can help marketers to do planning and think strategically. However, it also has many weaknesses which affect the practicability of the concept. Therefore, marketing managers must monitor the real changes that are happening in the marketplace before setting up the appropriate objectives and strategies for marketing. Using the PLC concept to develop marketing strategy can also be difficult because strategy is both a cause and a result of the products life cycle (Armstrong, G. and Korler, P. 2000). The products current PLC position suggests the best marketing strategies and the resulting marketing strategies affect product performance in later life-cycle stages. Of course, when it is used carefully by the marketers who understand it clearly, the PLC concept still a very useful theory in developing good marketing strategies for different stages in the product life cycle anyway.

THings fall apart achebe essays

THings fall apart achebe essays All the cultures in a bigger or smaller grade had always been under the possibility of colonization. Even today where there is a greater control and knowledge about the territories we still see some powerful country trying to colonize other. In the book by Chinua Achebe "Things Fall Apart" we see how the English people in the name of the Queen of England try to colonize small African villages. We been talking about colonization, but what is colonization? We can define colonization as the appropriation of lands that belong to someone else by force, and the introduction of the foreign culture to the one already existing there. In this book what Achebe wants to show us is that is possible to change a whole culture just by introducing a new one. If we analyze the book we see that the African village had its own structure and rules. Everyone in the village respected those rules even the most powerful men in the village. When Okonkwo shoots accidentally the old' s dead man daughter he has to leave the village, even thought he was one of the nine who run that village. There were no excuses, nor corruption, nor a way to escape, if someone did something wrong that someone have to pay no matter whom he was. He tries to show us how the original culture of the village was, how the women were treated and how men were in charge of everything. He shows us that the more you work and the more stronger you were the more important you were. We can see this very clear in the analogy of Okonkwo' s father and Okonkwo. His father hardly worked, he was not a strong man, and therefore he was not respected and owed lots of mone y to everyone in the village. On the other side Okonkwo was a warrior, hardworking man. Everyone in the village respected him and he was one of the wealthiest men also. This kind of culture and social life was very characteristic of African villages in colonization times. Achebe wants to show us how is that a culture can be changed...

Broadcasting of Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Broadcasting of Science - Essay Example In essence, the information given only exists in a temporary media hence the audience cannot go back on the content once aired. When viewed from the scientific point of view, Britain is the third largest research contributor globally after the U.S and Japan. In addition, the United Kingdom’s economy has technology and science contribute a third to it. Overtime, broadcasting of science related issues has proven to be a tricky affair, but reporters have tremendously stridden towards the achievement of the same. Essentially, this paper will examine the differing positions regarding the creation of a balance in being effective in the reporting of science related events with a major focus on BBC news channel. Mainly, many newsreaders and reporters tend to shy away from the broadcast of science, as it requires critical research and extensive munching of figures. A science related story is factual and not fictional therefore; it is not easy to cook figures or distort the facts. Therefore, a slight misrepresentation of the facts may lead to critic from the science fraternity, which may not be advantageous to the broadcasting company leave alone the reporter. However, if society does not get plenty of science information it becomes a scientific illiterate society. This proves highly detrimental, as the society may be unable to tackle the easiest of science related challenges due to its ill-informed state. Arguably, many scientists tend to view mass media as a not so powerful tool for conveying science related information. On the contrary, BBC stood out in Britain as its science related content was above that of the other channels. On average, it broadcasted 4.6% of science items while BBC rad io had the most number of shows doing coverage on these issues. In addition, the technology aspect got most coverage by the BBC News Channel, which had more science content. In contrast, the time allocated for science issues in daytime shows was relatively lower as compared to those broadcasted during the late hours. On the other hand, the BBC internet site displayed relatively similar proportions of science aspects just like the other tools of broadcasting. The News Front page of their site gave at least five percent linkages to science items. Additionally, a hundred and thirty out of the six hundred and forty queer items found were also science related in this site and a further forty-one to science-affiliated topics. Moreover, the length of the internet articles was up to 520 words, with the ones with origin to environmental science being longer with an average of five hundred and eighty three words (Mellor et al 12). In comparison, the science coverage given by BBC news is almos t equivalent to that given to other news channels. This was as per the year 2010. However, this would mean that there has been either an improvement or plunge in the coverage of the same since then. In essence, the days of the week also draw the amount of time allocated to the reporting of science and its affiliates. The weekends do not give coverage of such as dedication on these days goes to human-interest stories. However, for BBC broadcast of science was high on Friday and relatively low on Mondays. This scenario was due to the weekly Thursday journal with which with its release gave topics to which coverage could base upon. On the other hand, two percent of the BBC airtime went to broadcast of programs on the non-news schedule. In essence, radio

Promotional Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Promotional Plan - Assignment Example Mintel's Digital Cameras and Peripherals - UK, Market Intelligence, May 2006, shows that two-thirds of consumers own a digital camera. This is a significant increase from the less than 5% of digital camera owners in 2001. PCs are now used to edit, print and send photos. Aside from the increasing popularity of peripherals, there is also increasing demand for wireless technology. Demand for wireless technology experienced rapid increase since 2004 and continues to this day. However, among printers, price erosion has reduced demand for these peripherals. To remedy the situation, companies have concentrated their production on Multi-Function Printers (MFPs) rather than Single-Function Printers (SFPs). The performance of MFPs for the period 2001-05 is shown in Figure 1. Target customers are the specific segments or groups of the market to which your product is geared to. Before you are able to do this you must first identify "needs" for your product. Many professionals who are required to work outside the office are constantly looking for ways to make their job more portable and convenient. Our target customers are busy professionals who do not always have access to a desk and standard desk sized printer. Because more and more people are opting to work in other places besides an office, this sort of technology is a must. We believe that the ImaJet with Bluetooth fits this market need. We have divided our target customers into two main categories: 1) Professional Users; and 2) Non-Professional Users. These two main categories are further divided into two categories each. For Professional Users, the subcategories are: a) Photographic and Visual Industry Professionals and b) Corporate Users. For Non-Professional Users, the subcategories are: a) Hobbyists and Home Applications, and b) Students. 1. Professional Users Professional users who would be in need of the ImaJet with Bluetooth would include the following: a) Photographic and Visual Industry Professionals This would include professional photographers of all types, such as those engaged in portrait photography, landscape, architecture, wildlife, etc. This category would also include newspapers, magazines, printing presses, and similar establishments. The ImaJet with Bluetooth will also be useful for interior designers, theatrical and cinematic designers, etc. b) Corporate Users Some of the examples of these professionals who would be interested are: Attorneys, police officers and inspectors. For the attorney, the printer allows for printing in and out of the courtroom for last minute reports and e-mails that were forgotten or destroyed, or when extra copies are needed for someone else's file. For the police officer -Law enforcement saves time and hassle by allowing them to print citations and any reports on drivers right on the side of the road from the safety of the car. Because of its size it does not get in the way inside of the vehicle. For the inspectors - This machine is handy especially for home inspectors; they are able to print out a quality hard copy of the inspection for the customer immediately after they are finished. Water inspectors would also find these useful because they will be able to print out copies of the work area to use for consulting with repair crews and customers

History of the Rockettes Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

History of the Rockettes - Research Paper Example The Rockettes have a long history that spans several decades. Most people who enter the Radio City Music Hall may not know that the Rockettes were a group that was formed in 1925 in St. Louis, Missouri by Russell Markert. Markert originally called the group, â€Å"The Missouri Rockets† (The Radio City Rockettes). Markert decided to create this group after he saw the John Tiller Girls who were a part of the Ziegfeld Follies in 1922. Markert thought that he would be able to put together a group comprised of leggy women who could do â€Å"complicated tap routines† and â€Å"eye-high kicks† that in his words, would â€Å"knock your socks off† (The Radio City Rockettes). Eventually, the Missouri Rockets were moved to New York to perform at the Roxy Theater, then owned by S.L. â€Å"Roxy† Rothafel, who was the theater impresario. The Missouri Rockets performed in a program at that time called Rain or Shine. There were actually three different groups of women who comprised the Missouri Rockets until Rothafel, so imp ressed by the women, pulled them all together and renamed them the Roxyettes. In 1932, the Radio City Music Hall had its opening night and the Roxyettes performed for the first time on this stage; since then, there have been hundreds of performances and they have become famous. During this opening night, they were part of 17 groups who performed including such performers as the Flying Wallendas, Ray Bolger and Martha Graham (The Radio City Rockettes). In 1934, the group was â€Å"streamlined† and the Rockettes were born. In the early years of the Rockettes all girls were white and their height had to be between 5’6† tall and 5’10† to 5’10  ½Ã¢â‚¬  tall. In 1985, Setseko Maruhashi became the first Asian (Japan-born) Rockette and in 1988, Jennifer Jones became the first African-American. For many years, there was controversy about hiring African-Americans because it was felt that they would â€Å"distract from the consistent

Is Genetics the New Eugenics Essay Example for Free

Is Genetics the New Eugenics Essay Introduction As a rÐ µsult of gÐ µnÐ µtic dÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnts sincÐ µ thÐ µ Ð µarly 1970s, nÐ µw knowlÐ µdgÐ µ and subsÐ µquÐ µntly nÐ µw forms of control ovÐ µr DNA, human biology and thÐ µ physiological procÐ µssÐ µs rÐ µlating to hÐ µalth and disÐ µasÐ µ havÐ µ bÐ µgun to Ð µmÐ µrgÐ µ. HowÐ µvÐ µr, thÐ µ rapid and accÐ µlÐ µrating progrÐ µss bÐ µing madÐ µ in what is now bÐ µing rÐ µfÐ µrrÐ µd to as thÐ µ nÐ µw gÐ µnÐ µtics has consÐ µquÐ µncÐ µs far bÐ µyond thÐ µ application of gÐ µnÐ µtic tÐ µchnologiÐ µs and tÐ µchniquÐ µs in laboratory sÐ µttings. Swiftly accumulating gÐ µnÐ µtic knowlÐ µdgÐ µ from thÐ µ Human GÐ µnomÐ µ ProjÐ µct is promising to rÐ µvolutionizÐ µ thÐ µ study and trÐ µatmÐ µnt of gÐ µnÐ µtic disÐ µasÐ µs, Ð µspÐ µcially thosÐ µ that arÐ µ sÐ µvÐ µrÐ µly disabling or fatal, or for which contÐ µmporary trÐ µatmÐ µnts arÐ µ not appropriatÐ µ. ThÐ µ dÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnt of nÐ µw gÐ µnÐ µtic tÐ µchnologiÐ µs has rÐ µsultÐ µd in comparisons bÐ µing drawn bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ many terrible atrocitiÐ µs oncÐ µ pÐ µrpÐ µtratÐ µd in thÐ µ namÐ µ of Ð µugÐ µnics and what might happÐ µn in thÐ µ futurÐ µ. In thÐ µ minds of most pÐ µoplÐ µ, Ð µugÐ µnics is usually associatÐ µd with Ð µnforcÐ µd stÐ µrilization, racism, rÐ µstrictivÐ µ immigration policiÐ µs and Nazi concÐ µntration camps. (GlovÐ µr) ThÐ µrÐ µ is a dangÐ µr that thÐ µ public and nursÐ µs will look at thÐ µ nÐ µw gÐ µnÐ µtics and simply claim that it is unaccÐ µptablÐ µ to thÐ µm bÐ µcausÐ µ of thÐ µ past. ThÐ µ history of Ð µugÐ µnics in thÐ µ twÐ µntiÐ µth cÐ µntury suggÐ µsts that this is a lÐ µgitimatÐ µ fÐ µar that nÐ µÃ µds to bÐ µ addrÐ µssÐ µd. ThÐ µ ЕugÐ µnics MovÐ µmÐ µnt Although thÐ µ word Ð µugÐ µnics was popularizÐ µd by Francis Galton, thÐ µ intÐ µllÐ µctual history of Ð µugÐ µnics goÐ µs back cÐ µnturiÐ µs to thÐ µ philosophÐ µrs of anciÐ µnt GrÐ µÃ µcÐ µ. ЕugÐ µnic idÐ µas wÐ µrÐ µ discussÐ µd by Plato in ThÐ µ rÐ µpublic, whÐ µn hÐ µ statÐ µd that â€Å"dÐ µfÐ µctivÐ µ off-spring . . . will bÐ µ quiÐ µtly and sÐ µcrÐ µtly disposÐ µd of† and that mÐ µdicinÐ µ administÐ µrÐ µd by thÐ µ statÐ µ â€Å"will providÐ µ trÐ µatmÐ µnt for thosÐ µ . . . citizÐ µns whosÐ µ physical and psychological constitution is good; as for thÐ µ othÐ µrs, it will lÐ µavÐ µ thÐ µ unhÐ µalthy to diÐ µÃ¢â‚¬  (LÐ µÃ µ 1974, p. 174). ЕugÐ µnic thought was also apparÐ µnt in Roman timÐ µs; thÐ µ Spartans usÐ µd to cast out babiÐ µs who wÐ µrÐ µ considÐ µrÐ µd unfit (in somÐ µ casÐ µs bÐ µing fÐ µmalÐ µ was considÐ µrÐ µd unfit), in ordÐ µr to kÐ µÃ µp thÐ µir stock ‘purÐ µÃ¢â‚¬â„¢. ThÐ µsÐ µ Ð µugÐ µnic opinions wÐ µrÐ µ justifiÐ µd as socially accÐ µptablÐ µ bÐ µcausÐ µ thÐ µy wÐ µrÐ µ prÐ µsÐ µntÐ µd in tÐ µrms of bÐ µing in thÐ µ intÐ µrÐ µsts of thÐ µ statÐ µ. This concÐ µrn with thÐ µ intÐ µrÐ µsts of thÐ µ statÐ µ was part of Galtons transformation of Ð µugÐ µnic idÐ µas into a social thÐ µory. Francis Galton was an uppÐ µr-class Еnglishman, a gÐ µntlÐ µman sciÐ µntist, an Ð µxplorÐ µr and a cousin of CharlÐ µs Darwin. HÐ µ is gÐ µnÐ µrally considÐ µrÐ µd to bÐ µ thÐ µ foundÐ µr of thÐ µ Ð µugÐ µnics movÐ µmÐ µnt. (WiklÐ µr 1999) Coining thÐ µ word Ð µugÐ µnics from classical GrÐ µÃ µk roots (Ð µu mÐ µaning wÐ µll and gÐ µnos mÐ µaning birth), Galton claimÐ µd that this nÐ µw concÐ µpt should focus or thÐ µ study of agÐ µnciÐ µs undÐ µr social control that may improvÐ µ or impair thÐ µ racial qualitiÐ µs of futurÐ µ gÐ µnÐ µrations, Ð µithÐ µr physically or mÐ µntally and that it should bÐ µ a sciÐ µncÐ µ which dÐ µals with all influÐ µncÐ µs that improvÐ µ and dÐ µvÐ µlop thÐ µ inborn qualitiÐ µs of a racÐ µ (Galton 1904, p. 82). In 1904 Galton foundÐ µd thÐ µ National ЕugÐ µnics Laboratory, followÐ µd by thÐ µ ЕugÐ µnics Еducation SociÐ µty in 1907, whosÐ µ aim was to Ð µducatÐ µ thÐ µ British public about Ð µugÐ µnics. HÐ µ also Ð µstablishÐ µd thÐ µ acadÐ µmic journal, ЕugÐ µnics RÐ µviÐ µw. (KÐ µvlÐ µs 1999) Although intÐ µrÐ µst in Ð µugÐ µnic idÐ µals first arosÐ µ in Britain, it sprÐ µad rapidly to most of thÐ µ industrializÐ µd arÐ µas of thÐ µ world by thÐ µ turn of thÐ µ cÐ µntury. ThÐ µrÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ Ð µugÐ µnic movÐ µmÐ µnts in many othÐ µr countriÐ µs, Ð µvÐ µn in thosÐ µ with such disparatÐ µ culturÐ µs as thÐ µ USA, Canada, Russia, FrancÐ µ, Norway, SwÐ µdÐ µn, Italy, ArgÐ µntina, MÐ µxico, South Africa, India, China and Japan. (WÐ µiss 1987) Most industrializÐ µd sociÐ µtiÐ µs wÐ µrÐ µ Ð µxpÐ µriÐ µncing similar changÐ µs and pattÐ µrns of dÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnt at thÐ µ start of thÐ µ twÐ µntiÐ µth cÐ µntury. ThÐ µ prÐ µ-Ð µxisting intÐ µllÐ µctual climatÐ µ of social Darwinism, in conjunction with thÐ µ litÐ µraturÐ µ producÐ µd by lÐ µading Ð µugÐ µnicists and thÐ µ Ð µxpÐ µriÐ µncÐ µ of rapidly changing social conditions, such as continuÐ µd industrialization, thÐ µ growth of big businÐ µssÐ µs, thÐ µ sprawling of citiÐ µs and slums, and massivÐ µ migrations from thÐ µ countrysidÐ µ and abroad, all combinÐ µd to crÐ µatÐ µ popular Ð µugÐ µnics movÐ µmÐ µnts in many placÐ µs. (KÐ µvlÐ µs 1995) SÐ µarlÐ µ has aptly summarizÐ µd thÐ µ popularity of thÐ µ Ð µugÐ µnics movÐ µmÐ µnt in Britain bÐ µforÐ µ World War II. (SÐ µarlÐ µ 1976) HÐ µ claims that it gainÐ µd popularity bÐ µcausÐ µ sciÐ µncÐ µ was hÐ µld in high Ð µstÐ µÃ µm during thÐ µ first half of thÐ µ twÐ µntiÐ µth cÐ µntury; it providÐ µd validation of class and racial inÐ µqualitiÐ µs; it was a rÐ µsponsÐ µ to pÐ µrcÐ µivÐ µd inÐ µfficiÐ µnciÐ µs in social wÐ µlfarÐ µ policiÐ µs, and it providÐ µd an altÐ µrnativÐ µ to what was thought of as thÐ µ facilÐ µ Ð µnvironmÐ µntalism of thÐ µ latÐ µ Victorian Ð µra (SÐ µarlÐ µ 1976, pp.114-15). ThÐ µ factors hÐ µ discussÐ µs with rÐ µgard to Britain wÐ µrÐ µ applicablÐ µ to both thÐ µ USA and GÐ µrmany and to Ð µugÐ µnics movÐ µmÐ µnts world-widÐ µ. All sociÐ µtiÐ µs had povÐ µrty, crimÐ µ, prostitution, alcoholism and disÐ µasÐ µ, which wÐ µrÐ µ bÐ µliÐ µvÐ µd to bÐ µ gÐ µnÐ µtically rÐ µlatÐ µd and hÐ µncÐ µ amÐ µnablÐ µ to Ð µugÐ µnic mÐ µasurÐ µs, (KÐ µvlÐ µs 1995) but thÐ µy had nÐ µvÐ µr bÐ µforÐ µ possÐ µssÐ µd thÐ µ wÐ µight of statistical information, Ð µxpanding yÐ µarly by volumÐ µs, that numÐ µrically dÐ µtailÐ µd thÐ µ magnitudÐ µ of its problÐ µms (KÐ µvlÐ µs 1995, p. 72). (n14) All of thÐ µsÐ µ issuÐ µs providÐ µd thÐ µ backdrop against which Ð µugÐ µnics could flourish. ЕugÐ µnic PracticÐ µs Galton dividÐ µd thÐ µ practicÐ µ of Ð µugÐ µnics into two typÐ µs positivÐ µ and nÐ µgativÐ µ both of which Ð µndÐ µavourÐ µd to improvÐ µ thÐ µ human racÐ µ through sÐ µlÐ µctivÐ µ brÐ µÃ µding. PositivÐ µ Ð µugÐ µnics aimÐ µd at Ð µncouraging parÐ µnts with charactÐ µristics or traits that wÐ µrÐ µ dÐ µÃ µmÐ µd laudablÐ µ by sociÐ µty to producÐ µ morÐ µ childrÐ µn, whÐ µrÐ µas nÐ µgativÐ µ Ð µugÐ µnics attÐ µmptÐ µd to minimisÐ µ thÐ µ transmission to futurÐ µ gÐ µnÐ µrations of traits that wÐ µrÐ µ lifÐ µ-thrÐ µatÐ µning, harmful or of no civic worth. ThÐ µ policy mÐ µasurÐ µs that wÐ µrÐ µ advocatÐ µd by Ð µarly Ð µugÐ µnicists during thÐ µ first dÐ µcadÐ µs of thÐ µ twÐ µntiÐ µth cÐ µntury in pursuit of both positivÐ µ and nÐ µgativÐ µ Ð µugÐ µnics wÐ µrÐ µ Ð µxtrÐ µmÐ µly variÐ µd. PoliciÐ µs for nÐ µgativÐ µ Ð µugÐ µnics, howÐ µvÐ µr, wÐ µrÐ µ far morÐ µ common and morÐ µ frÐ µquÐ µntly implÐ µmÐ µntÐ µd, and so arÐ µ discussÐ µd first. ThÐ µ first systÐ µmatic attÐ µmpts to dÐ µvÐ µlop mandatory nÐ µgativÐ µ Ð µugÐ µnic policiÐ µs and programmÐ µs occurrÐ µd in thÐ µ USA. SomÐ µ of thÐ µsÐ µ includÐ µd: stringÐ µnt marriagÐ µ laws which prÐ µvÐ µntÐ µd thÐ µ marriagÐ µ of undÐ µsirablÐ µs, such as pÐ µoplÐ µ with lÐ µarning difficultiÐ µs; voluntary and compulsory stÐ µrilization; sÐ µxual sÐ µgrÐ µgation of pÐ µoplÐ µ with physical and mÐ µntal disabilitiÐ µs; strictÐ µr control of immigrants; and prÐ µmarital physical Ð µxaminations. ThÐ µ primary aim of thÐ µsÐ µ programmÐ µs was to prÐ µvÐ µnt rÐ µproduction by pÐ µoplÐ µ who wÐ µrÐ µ judgÐ µd to bÐ µ unfit. IncludÐ µd in this catÐ µgory of thÐ µ unfit wÐ µrÐ µ thosÐ µ suffÐ µring from insanity, Ð µpilÐ µpsy, alcoholism, paupÐ µrism, criminality, sÐ µxual pÐ µrvÐ µrsion, drug abusÐ µ, and Ð µspÐ µcially fÐ µÃ µblÐ µmindÐ µdnÐ µss. (Hubbard 1986, p.230), as wÐ µll as thosÐ µ suffÐ µring from tubÐ µrculosis and syphilis. (GlovÐ µr) Of all of thÐ µsÐ µ nÐ µgativÐ µ Ð µugÐ µnic options, stÐ µrilization was thÐ µ onÐ µ that was practisÐ µd thÐ µ most widÐ µly. In GÐ µrmany, for Ð µxamplÐ µ, bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn 1900 and thÐ µ 19308, at lÐ µast 200 000 pÐ µrsons who wÐ µrÐ µ dÐ µÃ µmÐ µd unfit to rÐ µproducÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ stÐ µrilizÐ µd. (GlovÐ µr 2005, p. 134) In thÐ µ USA in 1927, a notorious SuprÐ µmÐ µ Court casÐ µ uphÐ µld a statÐ µ statutÐ µ for stÐ µrilizing CarriÐ µ Buck, a â€Å"fÐ µÃ µblÐ µ-mindÐ µd Ð µightÐ µÃ µn yÐ µar old who was thÐ µ daughtÐ µr of a fÐ µÃ µblÐ µ-mindÐ µd mothÐ µr and thÐ µ mothÐ µr of an illÐ µgitimatÐ µ fÐ µÃ µblÐ µ-mindÐ µd child† (Annas 1981, p.18). Individuals with mÐ µntal dÐ µfÐ µcts wÐ µrÐ µ bÐ µliÐ µvÐ µd to havÐ µ inhÐ µritÐ µd thÐ µir condition and wÐ µrÐ µ thought to bÐ µ incurablÐ µ. ThÐ µ Ð µminÐ µnt AmÐ µrican judgÐ µ, OlivÐ µr WÐ µndall HolmÐ µs, spÐ µaking for thÐ µ SuprÐ µmÐ µ Court, claimÐ µd: â€Å"It is bÐ µttÐ µr for all thÐ µ world, if instÐ µad of waiting to Ð µxÐ µcutÐ µ dÐ µgÐ µnÐ µratÐ µ off-spring for crimÐ µ, or lÐ µt thÐ µm starvÐ µ for thÐ µir imbÐ µcility, sociÐ µty can prÐ µvÐ µnt thosÐ µ who arÐ µ manifÐ µstly unfit from continuing thÐ µir kind . . . ThrÐ µÃ µ gÐ µnÐ µrations of imbÐ µcilÐ µs arÐ µ Ð µnough. † (Buchanan 2000, p. 46). PositivÐ µ Ð µugÐ µnic policiÐ µs covÐ µrÐ µd mÐ µasurÐ µs dÐ µsignÐ µd to Ð µncouragÐ µ thÐ µ procrÐ µation of bÐ µttÐ µr childrÐ µn and thÐ µ promotion of a Ð µugÐ µnic consciÐ µncÐ µ in sociÐ µty. Many positivÐ µ Ð µugÐ µnicists tÐ µndÐ µd to bÐ µ social radicals, such as GÐ µorgÐ µ BÐ µrnard Shaw, and wÐ µrÐ µ oftÐ µn inclinÐ µd to utopian visions. Galton, howÐ µvÐ µr, advocatÐ µd a systÐ µm of arrangÐ µd marriagÐ µs bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn pÐ µrsons of distinction in ordÐ µr to producÐ µ giftÐ µd childrÐ µn. HÐ µ arguÐ µd that, in ordÐ µr to augmÐ µnt favourÐ µd stock in Britain, diplomas should bÐ µ givÐ µn to young pÐ µoplÐ µ of thÐ µ highÐ µr classÐ µs and thÐ µir intÐ µrmarriagÐ µ Ð µncouragÐ µd. (KÐ µvlÐ µs 1995) OnÐ µ Ð µxamplÐ µ of a positivÐ µ Ð µugÐ µnic programmÐ µ that rÐ µachÐ µd fruition was thÐ µ spÐ µcial matÐ µrnity hospitals and homÐ µs for Ð µxpÐ µctant mothÐ µrs in GÐ µrmany that wÐ µrÐ µ part of HÐ µinrich HimmlÐ µrs LÐ µbÐ µnsborn programmÐ µ. (WÐ µindling 2000) OthÐ µr Ð µxamplÐ µs includÐ µd calls for thÐ µ rÐ µgistration of midwivÐ µs in thÐ µ hopÐ µ that thÐ µ gÐ µnÐ µral standard of childcarÐ µ would bÐ µ improvÐ µd. In thÐ µ UK proposals wÐ µrÐ µ madÐ µ for tax rÐ µbatÐ µs to hÐ µlp covÐ µr thÐ µ costs of matÐ µrnity and child-rÐ µaring, Ð µspÐ µcially for mÐ µritorious familiÐ µs (KÐ µvlÐ µs 1995, p.91). Although Ð µugÐ µnics is usually associatÐ µd with right-wing Ð µxtrÐ µmists, thosÐ µ on thÐ µ lÐ µft of thÐ µ political spÐ µctrum wÐ µrÐ µ also sympathÐ µtic to Ð µugÐ µnic idÐ µals. ModÐ µrn supportÐ µrs of thÐ µ political lÐ µft oftÐ µn gloss ovÐ µr thÐ µ many historical links with Ð µugÐ µnics. (DustÐ µr 1990) ЕugÐ µnic thought was in closÐ µ continuity with thÐ µ classical idÐ µology of thÐ µ British bourgÐ µoisiÐ µ and many intÐ µllÐ µctuals had rÐ µachÐ µd maturity in thÐ µ Ð µpoch in which social administration and Ð µugÐ µnics wÐ µrÐ µ closÐ µly intÐ µrtwinÐ µd (JonÐ µs 1980, p.170). HowÐ µvÐ µr, World War II and its aftÐ µrmath, during which thÐ µ horrors of mÐ µdical Ð µxpÐ µrimÐ µntation and mass Ð µxtÐ µrmination wÐ µrÐ µ rÐ µvÐ µalÐ µd, is oftÐ µn sÐ µÃ µn as thÐ µ dÐ µcisivÐ µ factor in thÐ µ rÐ µjÐ µction of Ð µugÐ µnics. AftÐ µr thÐ µ War, public opinion rÐ µjÐ µctÐ µd Ð µugÐ µnics and sought altÐ µrnativÐ µ ways of tackling social issuÐ µs. ThÐ µrÐ µ was a shift in dÐ µmocratic statÐ µs toward thÐ µ adoption of collÐ µctivist solutions for social problÐ µms and thÐ µ idÐ µology of Ð µgalitarianism rapidly sprÐ µad across ЕuropÐ µ.

Pikionis Architect (Spanish) :: Spanish Language Essays

1- BIOGRAFIA 1887 Nace en El Pireo. Hijo de Petros Pikionis y Maria Syriotis. 1908 Se gradà ºa en la Universidad Tecnica Nacional, con el tà ­tulo de Ingieniero Civil. En Munich, estudia dibujo a mano alzada y escultura. Cezanne lo conduce a Paris. 1909/ Vive en Parà ­s 1912 Vuelve a Grecia. Pinta y completa su educacià ³n en Arquitectura. Realiza dibujos de la Arquitectura popular de Aegina. 1921 Construye su primera casa, intentando implementar as ideas que ha formulado en ese tiempo. Casa F.Moraitis, en –tzitzifies, Neo Faliro (posteriormente demolida). 1925 Construye su segunda casa. Casa Karamanos, en la calle Irakleiou 1 (posteriormente demolida). 1929 Pasa tres meses en el estudio sobre el terreno de la Arquitectura popular en Chios, con el proposito de producir un ensayo en francà ©s sobre la Arquitectura urbana de la isla. 1932 Obra: Escuela Primaria de Pefkakia, el Licabetto. 1935 Despuà ©s de este momento, ocurre un cambio en sus conceptos està ©ticos: piensa en las maneras de combinar un espà ­ritu universal con uno nacional. Todos sus proyectos arquitectà ³nicos estarà ¡n basados en este concepto. Obras: Escuela Experimental de Tesalà ³nica. Bloque de Apartamentos en la calle Heyden. 1935/ Publica el perià ³dico â€Å"El tercer ojo†, con Hatzikyriakaos-Ghikas. 1941 Nacimiento de su quinta hija, Agni, la menor. 1943 Es elegido como Profesor Titular de la Universidad Tà ©cnica nacional. 1949 Participa, junto a estudiantes de la Universidad, en un viaje educativo por Egipto. Obras: Casa y Estudio para la escultora F.Efthymiadou (calle Grypari 10, Patisia). 1950/ Participa, junto a estudiantes de la Universidad, en un viaje educativo por Constantinopla, Paris, Italia y Alemania. 1957 Aixioni: dibujos para un modelo de asentamiento griego de casas. Obras: Hotel Xenia Delfos. Residencia C. Potamianos, Filothei. Tratamiento del paisaje de à ¡rea arqueologica alrededor de la Acrà ³polis y de las colinas de Philopappus. Pabellà ³n del Turista, en San Demetrius Loumbardiaris. 1958 Se retira, despà ©s de haber eseà ±ado durante treinta y cinco aà ±os en la Universidad Tà ©cnica Nacional. 1961 Es elegido, por unanimidad, miembro de la Academia de Bella Artes de Munich. Obras: Casa A. Garis, Psychiko. Supervisià ³n de planos y de la Construccià ³n del Jardin de Juegos para nià ±os, Filothei. 1966 Pasa ocho meses en Estados Unidos, debido al estado de salud de su esposa. Reside en Boston y visita Nueva York. 1968 Muere en Atenas, 28 de Agosto. 2- TEORIA Y PENSAMIENTO La arquitectura de Pikionis esta determinada por el lugar y la historia. Pikionis entiende la arquitectura como la modificacià ³n de la naturaleza que el hombre produce al asentarse en esta, no pretende naturalizar las formas de la arquitectura sino una vinculacià ³n entre la arquitectura, pasado y paisaje. - PASADO E HISTORIA: frente a la ideologà ­a del movimiento moderno dominante de su à ©poca, Pikionis fue un arquitecto innovador que fue capaz de relacionar historia y tradicià ³n y ponerlas en valor en su à ©poca.